This study investigates gender differences in performance on the mathematics component on the Standard 3 National Assessment in Trinidad and Tobago. Of interest is whether there is a relationship between attitudinal differences regarding mathematics and student beliefs in their mathematical abilities and student gender classification. Results indicate that whereas girls performed better than boys on all categories and all skill areas on the test, the effect sizes were small. The results of a MANOVA with follow-up descriptive discriminant analysis also indicate that while boys and girls did not differ with regard to the perception of the school environment, educational values and goals, and general academic self-concept, they differ significantly on the persistence and mathematics self-concept factors. Girls tend to persist more, but hold lower mathematics self-concept than boys.

• American Association of University Woman [AAUW] (2010). Breaking barriers for women and girls. Retrieved January 22, 2010 from http://www.aauw.org.
• Binder, A. (1984). Restrictions on statistics imposed by method of measurement: Some reality, some myth. Journal of Criminal Justice, 12, 467-481.
• Bouchey, A. H., & Harter, S. (2005). Reflected appraisals, academic self-perceptions, and math/science performance during early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 673-686.
• Brown, L. I. (2005). Gender and academic achievement in math: An examination of the math performance data on seven to nine year olds in Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Curriculum, 12, 37-56.
• Brown, L. I., & Kanyongo, G. Y (2007). Differential item functioning and male-female differences in a large-scale mathematics assessment in Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Curriculum, 14, 49-71.
• Brunner, M., Krauss, S., & Kunter, M. (2007). Gender differences in mathematics: Does the story need to be rewritten? Intelligence, 36(5), 403-421.
• Burley, R. C., Turner, L. A., & Vitulli, W, F. (1999). The relationship between goal orientation and age among adolescents and adults. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 160, 84-88.
• Chevannes, B. (2001). Learning to be a man: Culture, socialization and gender identity in five Caribbean communities. Mona, Jamaica: University Press.
• Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155-159.
• Conrad, D. A. (1999). Educational leadership and the ethic of care: The experiences of four women educators of Trinidad and Tobago. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA.
• Cooper, B., & Dunne, M. (2000). Assessing children’s mathematical knowledge: social class, sex and problem-solving. Buckingham: Open University press.
• Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.
• Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, W. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 272-299.
• Fennema, E., Carpenter, T. P. (1998). New perspectives on gender differences in mathematics: An introduction. Educational Researcher, 27, 4-5
• Fennema, E., Carpenter, T. P., Jacobs, V. R., Franke, M. L., & Levi, L. W. (1998). A longitudinal study of gender differences in young children's mathematical thinking. Educational Researcher, 27, 6-11.
• Fennema, E., & Sherman, J. A. (1977). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization and sociocultural factors. American Educational Research Journal, 14, 51-71.
• Figueroa, M. (1997, November). Gender differentials in educational achievement in Jamaica and other Caribbean territories. Paper presented at the Conference on Intervention Strategies to Address Male Underperformance in Primary and Secondary Education. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.
• Gorard, S., Rees, G., & Salisbury, J. (1999). Reappraising the apparent underachievement of boys at school. Gender and Education, 11, 441-454.
• Grant, H., & Dweck, C. (2003). Clarifying achievement goals and their impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 541-553.
• Halpern, D. F., (2000). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (3rd ed.) Mahwah: NJ. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Hattie, J. (1992). Measuring the effects of schooling. Australian Journal of Education, 36(1), 5-13.
• Heyman, G. D., & Dweck, C. S. (1992). Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: Their relation and their role in adaptive motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 231-247.
• Hyde, S. J., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 139-155.
• Ireson, J., & Hallam, S. (2005). Pupils‟ liking for school: Ability grouping, self-concept and perception of teaching. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 297- 311.
• Jaccard, J., & Wan, C. K. (1996). LISREL approaches to interaction effects in multiple regression. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Jules, V., & Kutnick, P. (1990). Determinants of academic success within classrooms in Trinidad and Tobago: Some personal and systemic variables. Educational Studies, 16, 217-235.
• Jae-On, K., & Mueller, C. W. (1978). Introduction to factor analysis: What it is and how to do it. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences Series, No. 13.
• Jules, D., Miller, E., & Armstrong, A. L. (2000). Education strategy: Report of the Caribbean Education Task Force. Washington, D.C.: Caribbean Education Task Force, World Bank, Education Advisory Service.
• Kloosterman, P. (1988). Self-confidence and motivation in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 345-351.
• Kutnick, P., & Jules, V. (1988). Antecedents affecting science achievement scores in classrooms in Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Educational Development, 8, 306-314.
• Kutnick, P., Jules, V., & Layne, A. (1997). Gender and school achievement in the Caribbean: Serial No. 21. London: Department for International Development.
• Lapointe, J. M., Legault, F., & Batiste, S. J. (2005). Teacher interpersonal and adolescents‟ motivation in mathematics: A comparison of learning disabled, average, and talented students. International Journal of Educational Research, 43, 39-54.
• Leahey, E., & Guo, G. (2001). Gender differences in mathematical trajectories. Social Forces, 80, 713-732.
• Lepper, M. R., & Henderlong, J. (2000). The little engine that had an incremental theory: an essay review of self-theories. Human Development, 43, 186-190.
• Light, R.J., Singer, J.D. & Willet, J.B. (1990). By design: Planning research in higher education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Ma, X., & Kishor, N. (1997). Assessing the relationships between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics; a meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 28, 26-47.
• Ma, X. (1997). Reciprocal relationships between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics. Journal of Educational Research, 90, 221-229.
• Manning, M. (1998). Gender differences in young adolescents‟ mathematics and science achievement. Childhood Education, 168-171.
• Marsh, H. W. (1992). Content specificity of relation between academic achievement and academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 35-42.
• Marks, G. N. (2008). Accounting for the gender gaps in student performance in reading and mathematics: evidence from 31 countries. Oxford Review of Education, 34(1), 89-109.
• McCartney, K., & Rosenthal, R. (2000). Effect size, practical importance, and social policy for children. Child Development, 71(1), 173-180.
• Miller, E. (1994). Marginalization of the black male: Insights from the development of the teaching profession (2nd ed.). Jamaica: University of the West Indies, Canoe Press.
• Mullis, I. V., Martin, M. O., Fierros, E. G., Goldberg, A. L., & Stemler, S. E. (2000). Gender differences in achievement: IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Boston College, MA: TIMSS International Study Center.
• Nichols, J. (1996). The effects of cooperative learning on student achievement and motivation in a high school geometry class. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 467-476.
• Neuville, E. & Croizet, J. (2007). Can salience of gender identity impair math performance among 7-8 years old girls? The moderating role of task difficulty. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22, 307-316.
• Noguera, P. (2003). The problem with black boys: The role and influence of environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African American males. Urban Education, 38, 431-459.
• Odih, P. (2002). Mentors and role models: masculinity and the educational „underachievement‟ of young Afro-Caribbean males. Race Ethnicity and Education, 5(1), 91-105.
• Oplatka, I. (2004). The principalship in developing countries: Context, characteristics and reality. Comparative Education, 40(3), 428-448.
• Parry, O. (2000). Male underachievement in high school education in Jamaica, Barbados, and St. Vincent. Kingston, Jamaica: Canoe Press.
• Peterson, P., & Fennema, E. (1985). Effective teaching, student engagement in classroom, and sex- related differences in learning mathematics. American Educational Research Journal, 22, 309-335.
• Preacher, K. J., & MacCallum, R. C. (2003). Repairing Tom Swift‟s electric factor analysis machine. Understanding Statistics, 2(1), 13-43.
• Randhawa, B. S. (1994). Self-efficacy in mathematics, attitudes, and achievement of boys and girls from restricted samples in two countries. Perceptual and Motor Skills,1011-1018.
• Randhawa, B. S. (1991). Gender differences in academic achievement: A closer look at mathematics. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, XXXVII, 241-257.
• Rech, J. F. (1994). A comparison of the mathematics attitudes of black students according to grade level, gender, and academic achievement. Journal of Negro Education, 63(2), 212- 220.
• Ryan, M. A., & Deci, E. L. (200). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67.
• Ryan, M. A., & Patrick, H. (2001). The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents‟motivation and engagement during middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 437-460.
• Schommer-Aikens. M., Brookhart, S., Hutter, R., & Mau, W. (2000). Understanding middle school students‟ beliefs about knowledge and learning using a multidimensional paradigm. Journal of Educational Research, 94, 120-127.
• Singh, K., Granville, M., & Dika, S. (2002). Mathematics and science achievement: Effects of motivation, interest, and academic engagement. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(6), 323-332.
• Skaalvik, S. (2004). Gender differences in math and verbal self-concept, performance expectation and motivation. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 3, 241-252.
• Stein, M. K., Grover, B. W., & Henningsen, M. (1996). Building student capacity for mathematical thinking and reasoning: An analysis of mathematical tasks used in reform classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 33(2), 455-488.
• Tapia, M., & Marsh G. E.II (2004, Summer). The relationship of math anxiety and gender. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 8(2), 130-135.
• The World Fact-book. Retrieved January 22, 2010 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/td.html.
• Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Education. (2004). CXC O’ Level General Proficiency results by subjects and grades obtained, 2000, 2001, 2002. Division of Educational Research and Evaluation, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.
• Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Education. (2001). Summary of Public Primary Schools in Trinidad and Tobago. Port-of-Spain: Trinidad and Tobago.
• Williams, J., Wo, L., & Lewis, S. (2007). Mathematics progression 5-14: Plateau, curriculum/age and test year effects. Research in Mathematics Education 9(1), 127-142.
• Younger, M., Warrington, M., & Williams, J. (1999). The gender gap and classroom interactions: Reality and rhetoric? British Journal of Sociology in Education, 20, 325-341.
• Zumbo, B. D., & Zimmerman, D. W. (1993). Is the selection of statistical methods governed by level of measurement? Canadian Psychology, 34, 390-399.

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.